What is a Project?

A project is like a special journey where a group of people work together to create something new, like a product or a service. It’s a temporary thing that has a clear beginning and end, and it’s done to reach a specific goal within a set amount of time. You can think of it as a unique set of connected activities that are carefully planned and done within a specific budget. The project team has specific jobs to make sure the project is finished on time and within budget. The main aim of a project is to create something special and valuable that helps a business or organization succeed.

Definition from PMBok Guide:

Project Management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements.

In simple terms, project management means coordinating project activities from start to finish to make sure the project delivers a specific product or service within set limits of time, money, scope, and quality.

Please remember the following text:”To ensure a common understanding of best practices, the internationally accepted standard is outlined below.

All projects share the common characteristics of being temporary, with a definite start and finish, and unique, as the product or service is significantly different from all similar products or services.

Project management involves planning, organizing, and controlling an organization’s services to achieve short-term goals that contribute to the overall corporate vision and business strategy. The project manager works closely with executive management and other key stakeholders to deliver successful projects.

Consistent project success requires commitment and support from top management. Project team members and stakeholders must also be committed to the entire project, not just their specific area of expertise.

Best practice project management has a cross-organizational focus, with important roles for project sponsors/champions, the project manager, and project team members. To achieve strategic success, it’s essential for these key stakeholders to understand each other’s roles and responsibilities related to project outcomes and corporate goals.

In organizations that demonstrate a high level of project management maturity, the key areas of responsibility include:

Project Sponsor

• The owner supports and is accountable for the project.
• They approve the project proposal and assist the project manager in creating the project brief and preliminary project plan.
• The owner also approves these documents and ensures that key business resources are available according to the project plan.
• They support the project manager in resolving risks and issues, review the project regularly with the project manager, and formally accept the project deliverables.
• Additionally, the owner ensures that project achievements are recognized by the organization and approves all changes to scope, schedule, and budget.

Project Manager

• Produces the project brief and the preliminary project plan in consultation with the project sponsor.
• Ensures that the needs and expectations of the project are fully understood and documented.
• Develops the project plan in consultation with team members and other key stakeholders.
• Ensures that all the requirements of the project are included in the project deliverables.
• Manages the day-to-day activities of the project.
• Provides motivation and direction to the project team.
• Recognizes the contribution of the team members.
• Monitors the performance of the team on a regular basis and updates the project schedule.
• Prepares regular status reports for the sponsor.
• Manages the risks and issues.
• Consults with the project sponsor on risks and issues that are not resolved at the project level.
• Raises change requests for all proposed changes to the scope of the project.
• Ensures that a Post-Implementation Review is conducted and reported to the project sponsor.
• Ensures that the project deliverable is appropriately handed over to the managing organization.

Project Team Member

• Works under the direction of and reports to the project manager.
• Provides technical expertise to the project as needed.
• Collaborates with the project team to meet the project deliverables.
• A project team member may be from within or outside the organization and may include consultants and contractors.

What is Project Management?

Project management involves careful planning, organizing, executing, and controlling of project activities to achieve specific goals within a certain time frame. According to the PMBok Guide, project management is applying knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements.

In practice, project management involves integrating various project activities throughout the project life cycle. This includes defining project scope, identifying project stakeholders, setting project timelines, allocating resources, monitoring project progress, and ensuring project quality. The main goal is to deliver a defined product or service within set constraints of time, budget, scope, and quality while meeting stakeholder expectations.

Effective project management requires a mix of technical, interpersonal, and managerial skills. Project managers need to deeply understand project management methodologies, as well as have strong leadership, communication, and problem-solving skills. They should also manage risks and conflicts effectively and adapt to changing project requirements.

What is Management by Projects?

“Management by Projects” is a way of running a business by using individual projects to reach the organization’s goals. This approach combines day-to-day operations with specific projects, all focused on achieving results and being flexible to changes. It includes forming project teams, setting project goals, making project plans and schedules, and using project management methods to ensure projects are done on time, within budget, and meet quality standards. This approach helps businesses adapt to changes and stay competitive.

Projects Vs. Operations

In an organizational context, it is important to differentiate between activities related to projects and those related to ongoing operations. Projects are temporary tasks with a defined start and end date, aimed at achieving specific goals within a distinct organizational structure. On the other hand, operations refer to the established structure in place to support the daily functions of an organization.

Projects • Temporary organisational structure and goals • Catalyst for change • Unique product or service • Dynamic Team Environment • Flexible • Fixed Start and End Date	Operations • Established ongoing structure and goals • Evolutionary Change • Standard Product or Services • Stable Team Environment • Ongoing

Projects are different from operations because they are temporary. Projects have a specific start and end date, after which they are finished and the organizational structure is taken apart. This temporary nature makes projects more flexible and dynamic than ongoing operations, which focus on maintaining existing structures and processes.

Projects are also a catalyst for change within an organization. They are designed to achieve specific and unique goals, often requiring significant changes to existing processes and structures. This allows organizations to innovate and improve their operations in response to changing market conditions or customer needs.

Another important aspect of projects is the dynamic team environment they create. Because projects are designed to achieve specific goals within a specific time frame, they often require the formation of new teams or the reorganization of existing teams. This fosters creativity and innovation.In contrast, operations focus on maintaining existing structures and processes and tend to have stable team environments. While this is beneficial for maintaining consistency and quality, it can lead to a lack of innovation and creativity.

Finally, projects are often associated with unique products or services that are not part of ongoing operations. This uniqueness allows organizations to differentiate themselves from competitors and respond to changing customer needs. However, it also creates challenges, requiring the development of new processes, systems, and structures.

In conclusion, while projects and operations share some similarities, they are distinct in their goals, organizational structures, and team environments. Understanding these differences is important for organizations to effectively manage both projects and operations and ensure long-term success.

What is the Importance of Project Management?

Project management is a crucial aspect of any endeavor, as it plays a pivotal role in determining the success of a project. It encompasses a wide range of activities, including meticulous planning, efficient execution, vigilant monitoring, and effective control from the project’s initiation to its completion. When executed adeptly, project management serves as a safeguard, ensuring that projects are delivered punctually and within the allocated budget, thus meeting the expectations of stakeholders. Moreover, it acts as a guardian of quality, ensuring that the appropriate processes, tools, and resources are utilized throughout the project lifecycle, consequently enhancing the quality of the deliverables and leading to heightened customer satisfaction and bolstered brand loyalty.

Furthermore, proficient project management serves as a shield against potential risks by identifying them early on and implementing preemptive measures to mitigate their impact. This proactive approach helps avert project delays, cost overruns, and other adverse outcomes that could jeopardize the project’s success.

In essence, effective project management can be summarized as follows:- Ensuring timely and cost-effective project delivery

• Elevating the quality of project deliverables
• Mitigating exposure to risks
• Enhancing productivity and, consequently, profitability

Moreover, effective project management optimizes resource utilization, curtails wastage, and identifies avenues for enhancement, thereby fostering greater productivity and profitability. Ultimately, by maximizing the return on investment and ensuring sustained success, adept project management proves to be an indispensable function in enabling organizations to realize their strategic goals and objectives through successful project delivery.

Relationship Between Management Disciplines

Understanding the interplay between different management disciplines is vital for the success of any organization. There are three key management disciplines that are essential for organizations to excel in:

1. General Management: This discipline involves overseeing all aspects of the ongoing operations of the organization, including day-to-day management, long-term strategic planning, budgeting, and resource allocation.

2. Technical Management: This discipline focuses on the technical aspects of a project, including design, development, testing, and implementation. It also involves managing the technical resources required to deliver the project.

3. Project Management: Project management encompasses the comprehensive management of all project aspects to achieve both internal and external objectives. This includes planning, execution, monitoring, and control, ensuring timely delivery, adherence to budget, and meeting quality standards.

Mastery of these core management disciplines equips organizations to effectively pursue their objectives and thrive in today’s competitive business landscape.

Management Relationship Diagram

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History of Project Management

Important Milestones

1914: Gantt Chart developed for production scheduling at the Frankford Arsenal.
1930s: US Air Corp’s Materiel Division sets up a project office function to monitor the development and progress of aircraft manufacture.
1951: Bechtel used the term ‘Project Manager’ as an assignment of responsibilities to one person (Transmountain Oil Pipeline in Canada)
1955: US Navy created a ‘Special Projects Office’ to develop the Fleet Ballistic Missile, Polaris.
1957: The Special Projects Office developed PERT (Program Evaluation Review Technique) to manage the hundreds of contractors.
1958: Civil & Civic (in Aust ) marketed itself to external clients as a project manager, taking full responsibility for the execution of all project phases, from inception to completion.
1959: CPM (Critical Path Method) was developed by the Integrated Engineering Control Group with a group at Remington Rand Univac. CPM cut turnaround times by 25%.
1959: Harvard Business Review recognises Project Management as a distinctive management discipline.
1964: PDM (Precedence Diagramming Method) was developed by Stanford University’s Civil Engineering Department on behalf of the US Bureau of Yards and Docks.
1970s: PM systems adopted outside construction and defence Environmental issues addressed as part of project delivery Organisations recognised the importance of effective upfront planning for the successful delivery of projects.
Establishment of the first professional bodies for project management (PMI in the USA and AIPM in Australia)
1980s: Introduction of Time, Cost & Quality equation Increase in ‘green issues’ as project focus Proliferation of personal computers Introduction of ethics, standards and accreditation.
1990s: ‘Management by Projects’ TQM (Total Quality Management)
2000s: Increased emphasis on risk management and the development of Project Management Maturity Models.

Further reading: Fundamentals of Project Management, Rory Burke, Chapter 2

Project Manager Roles & Skills

What is a Project Manager?

A project manager is a skilled individual who specializes in overseeing and directing project activities. The project manager’s main responsibilities include:

• Determining the tasks to be completed.
• Establishing deadlines for task completion.
• Understanding the rationale behind each task.
• Identifying the resources available for task execution.
• Assessing the overall quality of the project upon completion.

What is the role of a Project Manager?

The Project Manager is responsible for playing multiple roles, including:

1. Strategist: Formulating strategies to ensure efficient utilization of project resources.
2. Negotiator: Acquiring the necessary resources to support the project’s objectives.
3. Organizer: Assembling a team to serve as the central point for project management.
4. Leader: Recruiting and overseeing the planning and allocation of resources to support the project.
5. Mentor: Offering guidance and advice to members of the project team.
6. Motivator: Cultivating an environment that fosters the highest level of performance from the team.
7. Controller: Maintaining oversight of the effective use of resources to achieve project goals.
8. Diplomat: Establishing and nurturing relationships with project stakeholders to garner their support for the project.

What are the Key Skills Required?

The Project Manager needs to possess a diverse set of skills to carry out their responsibilities effectively:

1. Technical Skills: Proficiency and understanding of the specific tasks and activities related to the project, including specialized knowledge and expertise in using tools and techniques relevant to the project’s discipline.
2. Human Skills: The ability to work collaboratively within a team environment, fostering an atmosphere of support and trust that encourages open exchange of ideas.
3. Conceptual Skills: The capacity to envision how the project fits into the larger context of the organization, community, and political landscape, and the ability to take actions that promote the overall well-being of the entire organization.

What are the Key Skills Required?

To perform their role, the Project Manager requires the skills:

Technical	Human	Conceptual
– Technical Awareness – Budgeting – Estimating Time	– Leadership – Management – Listening & Communication – Negotiating – Conflict Management – Personal Time Management – Team Building	– Organising – Planning – Problem Solving – Analysis – Decision Making

Profile of the Project Manager

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Project Manager Maturity Levels

5-Level Example Model for a Project Manager
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Project Manager Maturity Levels

A Project Manager can be considered to align with one of five levels on a scale of maturity:

Level 1: Technical Manager	Level 2: Project Management Awareness	Level 3: Project Focused Project Manager	Level 4: Integrated Project Manager	Level 5: Continuous Improvement
Qualifications / Experience in a technical discipline Superficial understanding of project management principles Ad-hoc use of some project management tools	Some basic training in project management General knowledge of project management terminology Acknowledgement of the need for common processes Regular use of core project management tools	Formal studies in project management Recognition of the need to proactively manage Adoption of common templates and processes	Formal qualifications / award in project management Consistent use of common methodology Pro-actively manages all aspects of the project Consistently applies general management skills to the internal and external project environments	Acts as mentor/coach to project team Regularly participates in professional development activities Actively contributes to the organisation’s continuous improvement process

The Skills of the Project Manager

THREE-SKILL APPROACH

The knowledge areas of project management intersect with other management disciplines such as general management and technical or application management. Project managers need to take a comprehensive approach to managing multidisciplinary teams. In a classic Harvard Business Review paper, Robert L. Katz introduced a three-skill approach to management, consisting of technical, human, and conceptual skills.

Technical Skill

The term “technical skill” refers to the ability to understand and excel in a specific type of activity, especially one that involves methods, processes, procedures, or techniques. When we think of technical skill, we can easily picture the expertise of a surgeon, musician, accountant, or engineer as they perform their specialized tasks. Technical skill encompasses specialized knowledge, analytical proficiency within a particular field, and adeptness in using the tools and techniques relevant to that discipline.

Among the three skills mentioned, technical skill is likely the most recognizable because it is the most tangible and because, in our era of specialization, it is a skill required by a large number of individuals. The majority of our vocational and on-the-job training programs prioritize the development of this specialized technical skill.

Human Skill

The executive’s human skill is essential for effectively leading a team and fostering cooperation. While technical skill pertains to working with processes or physical objects, human skill focuses on working with people. This skill is evident in how the individual perceives and understands the viewpoints of superiors, peers, and subordinates, and how they subsequently engage with them.

A person with highly developed human skill is conscious of their own attitudes, assumptions, and beliefs about others and groups. They can recognize the value and limitations of these feelings. By acknowledging and understanding different viewpoints, perceptions, and beliefs, they are adept at comprehending others’ intentions behind their words and actions. They are also skilled at communicating their own intentions effectively within the context of others’ perspectives.

Such an individual strives to create an environment of acceptance and security, where subordinates feel comfortable expressing themselves without fear of judgment. They encourage participation in planning and executing tasks that directly impact the team, fostering a sense of empowerment among their subordinates.

Conceptual Skill”

The ability to think conceptually involves seeing the organization as a unified entity. This includes understanding how different departments and functions within the organization are interconnected and how changes in one area can impact the entire organization. Conceptual skill also entails understanding the organization’s position within its industry, community, and the broader political, social, and economic landscape. By recognizing these connections and identifying the key elements in any situation, a leader can make decisions that promote the overall well-being of the entire organization.

The above are the essential general management skills that project managers should possess. Many project managers are often promoted from technical backgrounds without prior managerial skills. Consequently, they may need to focus more on their specific area of expertise. However, project managers must prioritize managing the overall processes and delegate technical tasks to others. While project managers should have a good understanding of the project’s technical aspects, their primary role is to oversee and manage the project.

Since a project is a temporary undertaking that typically requires resources from various functional areas of the organization, it is crucial for project managers to effectively manage the interactions among all project stakeholders. Identifying and acknowledging the stakeholders and their interests is essential for effective management. A stakeholder is defined as ‘anyone who has an influence over your project or who is influenced by it.’ Stakeholders can come from within or outside the organization. Without the support of key stakeholders, project managers may encounter significant challenges, potentially jeopardizing the project’s success.

Katz, RL 1974, ‘Skills of an effective administrator’, in Business Classics: Fifteen Key Concepts for Managerial Success, Harvard Business Review, 1991, USA, pp. 23-35.

Interface Management

Interface management occurs at three key areas: personal, organisation and system.

Personal Interface

In collaborative work settings, personal conflicts can arise when two individuals are involved in the same project. These conflicts often require intervention from managers to facilitate resolution. If the individuals report to the same manager, the project manager’s authority is limited, and the line manager must be involved in settling disputes. However, if the individuals are not under the same line or discipline, the project manager takes on the role of mediator and can escalate the matter to line management if necessary. Challenges intensify when conflicts involve multiple managers. In such cases, the project manager must possess the skills to effectively manage and resolve conflicts involving individuals associated with the project.

Organisational Interface

Navigating the organizational interface can be quite challenging as it requires managing not only people but also organizational objectives and differing managerial approaches. Conflict often arises at this interface due to variations in unit goals and misunderstandings stemming from technical jargon specific to each organizational unit. These interfaces primarily pertain to management and involve actions, decisions, or approvals that impact the project. However, they may also extend beyond the immediate organization or project to involve external units.

System Interface

The system interface is responsible for managing the connections between the product, facility, construction, resources, and other non-human elements within the system. These interfaces, whether developed by the project or inherent to the system, can pose challenges such as delays or inaccuracies in information flow, potentially disrupting the project schedule. As the project progresses, technical issues related to these interfaces can become increasingly prevalent. While crucial to the project’s success, it’s important for the project manager to also consider personal and organizational interfaces. Some project managers, particularly those with technical backgrounds, may focus excessively on technical system interfaces at the expense of personal and organizational aspects.

Great Specialist But Poor Manager?

Transitioning from a specialist to a manager is a crucial career move that demands acquiring new skills and developing them. Many professionals reach a stage where advancing further necessitates this transition. While some succeed and climb to executive roles, others struggle in their new managerial positions despite their previous competence as specialists.

Although a few individuals naturally grasp managerial skills, most successful transitions occur when individuals acknowledge the need to learn new skills. Shifting from a technical specialist to a project manager requires expertise in managing staff and fostering positive relationships with colleagues, clients, and strategic partners to support the organization in achieving its strategic objectives.

Motivation and leadership skills are essential for effective staff management. The ability of project managers to motivate their teams comes from their capacity to administer rewards and consequences. Poorly managed project teams often result from an overreliance on punishment, leading to more problems than solutions. On the other hand, good managers effectively use both punishment and rewards by recognizing individual needs, redesigning jobs, and setting challenging goals.

The absence of leadership skills can have varying impacts in different situations. When managing individuals outside their own profession, poor project managers may view leadership solely as giving orders, leading to compliance at the expense of disempowering the team and reduced productivity. Conversely, when managing specialists from their own discipline, they may delegate excessively, neglecting their own responsibilities. Building constructive relationships with fellow managers, contractors, and clients from different disciplines is often the most challenging aspect of the transition for project managers.

Specialists typically work independently, with considerable autonomy to focus on their tasks. As a result, they develop their own jargon and may undervalue other project management functions such as risk management and communications management. In contrast, project managers experience a constant stream of interruptions and the ongoing need to negotiate or compete for resources with other managers. They understand that their technical expertise is just one of many critical competencies essential for business success.

Poor managers often isolate themselves, aiming to focus on “real work” without distractions, leading to exclusion from crucial discussions and detrimental effects on the project, their team, and their careers. Another crucial aspect of transitioning to a project manager is the need to make strategic decisions, unlike specialists who typically have less say in choosing projects or clients. Strategic decision-making requires the ability to step back and see the bigger picture, a challenge for professionals accustomed to focusing solely on their discipline.

The good news for aspiring project managers is that these skills can be learned and practiced until they become automatic. Technical experts aspiring to become project managers first need to acquire skills in strategic and people management and managing relationships. They should seek out every opportunity to demonstrate their ability to apply these skills, even if a permanent project management position is not immediately available.

Transitioning from a technical expert to a project manager is not merely a promotion; it marks a significant career change, demanding a diverse skill set and a shift in mindset.

How much Technical Training does a Project Manager need?

From: PM Network – May 1998

John P Sahlin is a graduate of the US Naval Academy and is the manager of training and consulting at Project Control, an international project management consulting and software company in Annapolis, Md.

As a Project Management Consultant, I have encountered organisations with narrow definitions of project management; definitions that basically describe a projectised functional manager or a technical lead – project managers who are directly involved with produce development and who are more like the technical expert on the team, with a few scheduling / reporting responsibilities.

This definition of project management caused me to re evaluate my resume. Do I have the technical expertise to be a project manager in today’s world? I do not have a technical degree, but I have significant management training, including trail-by-fire training in project management. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge describes a relationship among general management techniques, project management techniques, and application area knowledge (technical skills), but does not discuss the depth of technical knowledge a project manager must have in order to be successful.

With the wide array of industries making use of project management, it is unlikely that there will be any consensus on the depth of technical knowledge required. Despite this, a few general rules apply across all application areas.
Never Tell Your Team How to Perform a Task. By setting and prioritising the project goals (milestones, control gates, and so forth), you are telling the members of your team what needs to be achieved. Leave it to the technical experts to decide how to accomplish the tasks. If we have learned nothing else from countless hours of team building exercises, we should learn that a group can brainstorm more effectively than an individual. It follows that leaving the how to the technical team is likely to result in an option you will not have considered by yourself.

Leaving the technical direction decisions to the experts does not hamper your ability to manage. In fact, be decentralising the technical issues, you improve your ability to manage. We are limited in the amount of information we can control. By passing the technical decisions to the technical leads, our energies are available to focus on the project’s strategic goals.

Know What You Don't Know, and Know the Sources of That Information. The most important lesson you can learn in project management is that you can’t know it all. Knowing the limits of your knowledge is invaluable to a manager. By recognising your limits, you can focus on the all-important task of identifying the sources of this knowledge.

These sources can take the form of media or members of your team. When identifying these sources of information, you must also consider the availability and veracity of those sources.

"I Don't Know" is an Acceptable Answer. In project management, unlike school, there is a penalty for guessing. By guessing, you endanger your reputation, as well as that of your entire team. By refusing to admit the limits of your knowledge, you risk the success of your project. More important, you risk losing the respect of your team. The leadership aspects of project management are often ignored, but integrity is your No 1 ally in organisations where you may not have direct authority (ie, functional or matrix organisations).
An important corollary to this rule is: Never answer the same question with “I don’t know” twice. If you don’t know the answer, find out what the answer is and don’t forget it. You can greatly improve team morale by showing the team that you are willing to learn and that you are enthusiastic about the project. Ignorance is forgivable, laziness is not.

Learn as Much as is Practical. While no one expects you to be the expert in all fields, you should be able to speak intelligently about the technology involved with your project. You should be able to explain to your sponsor (or customer) why it is beneficial to choose a particular course of action. You may also have to make decisions based on reports from your technical experts. In order to weigh technical options, you must be able to understand them.

The down side of training is that it takes you away from your duties. When deciding what technical training to pursue, ask yourself if it will help you manage your team on your next project. If the training is unlikely to have any bearing on future projects, it is probably not worth taking you off your current project to pursue. Your primary responsibility as a manager is to lead your team – not to be the single point of contact for technical issues.

Know Enough to Avoid Getting "Snowed". It is a sad fact of human nature that we try to cover our faults or failures. We are tempted to conceal our blemishes with technical jargon and statistics. A project manager needs to have enough technical knowledge to week through the numbers and derive the true meaning of the reports.

An example of this issue is Earned Value reporting. I remember my first Quarterly Progress Review on a contract with the US Navy: I was representing the government project manager. The contractor building the system was giving an EVA presentation to the government project manager. Everyone’s eyes glazed over as the cost control expert rattled off a series of figures and acronyms. During a break, one of the contractor’s engineers asked me to explain the presentation his company had just given. I showed him that given the current performance figures (about 70 percent CPI and SPI) it was mathematically impossible to achieve their goal of 92 percent CPI and SPI by the end of the project. He looked at me and said, “So you’re telling me that we’re lying to you.” I just smiled.

Project Leadership. These rules are not peculiar to project management. In fact, they are an application of general leadership skills I developed in the Navy. Little attention is paid to the leadership aspects of project management. Perhaps this is because the word leadership makes many of us think of Patton and his tanks, or Farragut at Mobile Bay. But leadership is not unique to the military; we can lead our project teams without being “command and control” martinets.
The best definition of leadership I have ever heard is the “art of getting people to do what they don’t want to, and making them think it was their idea in the first place.” Project leadership is the subset of project management that deals with interpersonal communications and relationships. This set of skills is used throughout the project lifecycle and in all process groups defined by the PMBOK Guide.

As project managers, we spend our careers communicating – with our team, to our customers, and with upper management. Our interpersonal communication skills are vastly more important to us than our specific technical knowledge. If we can successfully lead projects in one application area, we could take the lead in projects in other areas. A project manager in a software firm could make the transition to construction management with a relatively short learning curve by focusing on his or her ability to lead the project team to success – the technical skills are secondary.

Recommendations for Industry. Moving into the next century, organisations need to redefine the term project management. The project manager must become more than a technical lead, enabling organisations to leverage the wealth of experience and leadership skills that can improve their quality, efficiency, and “bottom line”. In order to adopt the practices of project management, organisations need to place more value on the leadership (non technical) aspects of project management.

A PROJECT MANAGER DOES NOT need intense technical training. It is more important that project managers hone the leadership and management skills that are common to all application areas.

The Role of the Project Manager

As previously discussed, the principal role of the project manager is that of an integrator, as they are the only person who can view both the project and its fit within the overall plan for the organization.

Additionally, the project manager must be a communicator. The communication process is not always easy due to the lack of clear communication channels, but the project manager has the responsibility to ensure that all stakeholders are appropriately briefed regarding the project’s status.

The project manager must also fulfill the role of a team leader. This applies not only to the formal authority of the position but also to the expert type of power that would be used in an informal structure.

Another important role for a project manager is that of a decision maker. The specific decisions may vary according to the type of project and the stage of the project’s life cycle, but in any event, the project manager must make them. Decision making is not unique to project managers, but it is a crucial role that significantly impacts the project as a whole.

Additionally, the project manager should be expected to create a supportive climate to avoid negative conflict and unrest.

Key Drivers of a Distinct Carrier Path

The evolution of project management as a distinct career path can be attributed to several key factors:

1. The perceived need during the 1950s and 1960s to maintain a strong defence capability during the Cold War.
2. The desire to establish the United States as a leader in space research and capability.
3. The necessity to accelerate the time it takes to bring consumer goods to market.
4. The increasing complexity of project requirements.
5. The growing influence of people power and its impact on project delivery.
6. The trend towards flatter management structures within organizations.
7. The development of faster and more accessible global communications has led to the formation of virtual project teams with members dispersed across the globe.

These developments rendered traditional functional management structures with specialized managers overseeing specialist teams inadequate for delivering complex projects.

Other Roles and Responsibilities within a Project

Program Manager

Accountable for the project and other concurrent projects. May serve as the Project Sponsor or Project Champion.

Project Sponsor

• Is the lowest level in the organisation with the authority to start and stop the project (aligns with Delegated
• Authorities Policy)
• Provides the funding and resources for the project
• Authorises or rejects scope changes
• Is the first escalation point

Line / Functional Manager

• Supports project staff
• May facilitate provision of budget and resources
• Is not necessarily the Project Sponsor

Project Team Members

• Contribute specific skills project to support the project delivery
• Often provide technical input within the project
• Are governed by the leadership structure administered by the Project Manager

Operations Staff

• Support the Project Manager through Administrative Assistanceas required
• Perform an ongoing role across multiple projects
• Often provide support in areas such as accounting, human resources management, general administration and IT support

External Readings

Bloomsbury Business Library Manage Projects Successfully. 2007, p4356. 14p. 3 Charts.

Working with a project sponsor and stakeholders

It’s all too easy, when you’re working on a project, to become so involved with your team and the work in hand that you overlook a very important group of people. These are your sponsor and stakeholders — in other words, all those who may have an investment or interest in the project’s outcome without
being directly involved in making it happen.

Neglect them at your peril! This group is likely to have opinions and influences that can make all the difference between success and failure of the whole project. The wise project manager will make sure that he or she knows from the outset who all these people are, what form their interest in the project
takes, and their needs and desires, and will then work out how to start and maintain a great working relationship with them. This chapter shows you how.

Step one: Understand what a ‘sponsor’ and a ‘stakeholder’ are

[Y] The project sponsor is the individual or organisation for whom the project is undertaken — the primary risktaker, in other words. This usually means the person or body responsible for financing the project. The project sponsor is far and away your most important stakeholder.
Yes Stakeholders are people who are not directly involved in the project but are affected by it in some way, and so have a vested interest in its successful or unsuccessful conclusion. As a result, they (and their views) have to be taken into account by the project manager and the sponsor. The most common type of stakeholder is the user — that is, the group of people who will be using the end product — but can also include people like your boss, suppliers, customers, and even your family.

Step two: Know why it’s essential to have these people ‘on side’

There are a number of important benefits to having a good relationship with your sponsor and stakeholders.

[Y] If you consult the most powerful among them early on, you can use their opinions to shape your project from the outset. Not only does this make it more likely that they will support you, but their input can also improve the quality of your work (and stop you having to do things twice).

[Y] Gaining support from powerful stakeholders can also help you to win valuable additional resources — which also means that your project will be more likely to succeed.

[Y] If you keep in touch regularly with stakeholders, you’ll know that they fully understand what you’re doing and what the benefits are. As a result, they’ll feel more involved and will probably be willing to support you actively when necessary.

[Y] Through stakeholders, you can anticipate what people’s reactions to your project may be and build in plans that will win widespread support.

Good stakeholder management also helps you to deal with the politics that can often come with major projects, and eliminates a potential source of major stress.

TOP TIP

Remember that your sponsor, having the biggest interest in your project, is not a ‘silent partner’ and does have the right to make decisions. If you think these are wrong, be honest about what you think (but don’t be confrontational). If, after all that, the sponsor still wants it done his or her way, follow instructions and do your best to make sure the outcome is successful.

Step three: Work out exactly who your stakeholders are

It will be perfectly obvious who most of your stakeholders are, but there may well be a few who don’t come to mind immediately. It’s a good idea to have a brainstorming session with your project team to make sure no one gets left out of the loop. Think about all the people who are affected by your work, who have power or influence over it, or who have an interest in whether it succeeds or fails.

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Remember that although stakeholders may be both organisations and people, at the end of the day you communicate with people, not buildings. Make sure, then, that you have a contact at any stakeholder organisation with whom you can build a relationship.

Step four: Analyse who takes priority

If you write down all the people who might fit into the categories above as well as anyone else you can think of who will be affected by your project, you may well end up with quite a long list. You don’t have enough time to deal with them all equally, so how do you decide who takes precedence?

The best thing to do is to categorise them by their power over your work and their interest in your work, as shown in the grid overleaf.

Go through the list of people you’ve identified as your stakeholders, and write their names in wherever seems appropriate. For example, your boss is likely to have high power over your project and high interest, and will therefore go at the top right hand corner of the grid. Your family may have high interest, but are unlikely to have power over it (so they’ll be at the bottom right hand corner).

Someone’s position on the grid shows you how you ought to deal with them:

• high power, high interest: these are the people you must make the greatest efforts to satisfy, so make sure you communicate with them very regularly and get them on side.
• high power, less interest: put in enough work to keep them satisfied, but not so much that they get bored with your message.
• lower power, high interest: keep this group adequately informed, and talk to them to ensure no major issues are arising. These people are often very helpful with the detail of your project.
• low power, low interest: check in every now and then with this group to confirm there aren’t any problems developing. An overview is usually fine here, so there’s no need to go into too much detail!

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When you write your stakeholders’ names into your power/interest grid, colourcode them according to whether they’re likely to support you or to be opposed to your project. Strong advocates could be written in green; more neutral people could be in orange, and serious critics could be in red … for
danger! Red alert people in the high power half will need especially careful management.

Step five: Understand your key stakeholders

So now you know who they are and what sort of priority they should have for your attention, you need to know more about your stakeholders: how they are likely to feel about and react to your project, and how best to engage them and communicate with them.
Key questions that can help you understand your stakeholders are:

• What financial or emotional interest do they have in the outcome of your work? Is it positive or negative?
• What motivates them most of all?
• What information do they want from you?
• How do they want to receive information from you?
• What is the best way of communicating your message to them?
• What is their current opinion of your work? Is it based on good information?
• Who influences their opinions generally? Do some of these influencers therefore become important stakeholders in their own right?
• If they’re not likely to be positive, what will win them round to support your project?
• If you don’t think you will be able to win them round, how will you manage their opposition?
• Who else might be influenced by their opinions?

The best way to answer these questions is to talk to your stakeholders directly. People are usually quite open about their views, and asking their opinions is often the first step in building a successful relationship with them — they’ll be pleased that their views are being taken into account.

Step six: Plan how you’ll communicate with your stakeholders

The next step is to draw up a communications plan, so you can make sure the right messages get to the right people in the right format.

This is vital: there’s always a danger that while a project is in progress, the project team slogs away and takes the attitude that ‘everyone should leave us alone until we’ve finished, and then we’ll deliver a wonderful product’.

Stakeholders who are keen to see a successful result get nervous if they have no
indication of how things are progressing, however, so you must keep in touch.
There are eight different aspects that you need to consider while drawing up your plan. These are:

1. Stakeholders: Who are you trying to reach (you’ll know this from your initial brainstorming session)?
2. Objectives: What are the objectives of the communication? Is it to prompt action, gain approval, or merely to inform?
3. Message: What are the key messages you want to get across? These should be targeted at the individual stakeholders according to their influence and interest. Typical messages will show the benefits to the person or organisation of what you are doing, and will focus on key issues like increasing profitability or delivering real improvements.
4. Information: What information will you communicate? There may be issues of confidentiality which must be addressed.
5. Channel: What channels will you use? The choice of channel for a particular stakeholder will depend upon the Message, Feedback, Level, and Timing aspects, not to mention geography (i.e. where they are located relative to you). You probably have a multitude of choices available to you — meetings, videos, email, newsletters, telephone, workshops and press conferences, for example.
6. Feedback: How will you encourage feedback, and what mechanisms should you have in place to respond to it?
   For example, you could have a dedicated email address for queries that a member of your project team is responsible for.
7. Level: How much detail should be provided?
8. Timing: When should you communicate? It’s no good leaving it until the end and then telling everyone that the project is finished!

The easiest way to organise all this information into an easytofollow
communications plan is to plot it all into a table of some kind.

Say, for example, your project is to construct a new village hall for the parish council, and you’ve decided your main forms of communication will be consultation meetings during design; monthly site meetings; monthly progress presentations; a page in the parish magazine, and an open day. You could
set them out as shown overleaf.

You can use simple tables of this type to illustrate various aspects of the communications plan. Keep the stakeholders down the lefthand side and change the column headings as you need to — they could relate to timings, information, message, channel, and so on. There are no set rules: just use whichever layout is most appropriate for your project.

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Flag up potential problems as early as you can. This gives everyone time to think through how move forward, and also preserves your reputation for reliability.

No one will be happy to be told at the last minute that a project is not going to be delivered on time or to budget.

Common mistakes

[N] You go over the top
It’s just as damaging to relations with stakeholders to go over the top as to provide too little information. The company chairman is not going to be amused to receive every detail of every quote you get in for materials and supplies! Be sensible about judging the level of detail you give to whom, and how much time you spend on managing your stakeholders … it all depends on the size and complexity of your projects and goals, and the time you have available.

[N] You don't consider what you want from each individual or group
Stakeholders are likely to be a disparate lot, and you’ll probably need very different kinds of support from each of them. Your family, you hope, will be understanding about you working at weekends (if necessary); your boss, you hope, will be understanding about you not giving priority to his or her immediate work. You’ll need to communicate with each stakeholder or group of stakeholders in very different ways: there’s no point bombarding them all with the same progress presentations if they’re just not suitable for everyone.

STEPS TO SUCCESS

• Understand why it’s essential to have your project sponsor and stakeholders on your side. They have the power to make your project succeed or fail.
• Brainstorm exactly who they all are, so no one gets left out of the loop.
• Work out who takes priority according to their power over, or interest in, your project.
• Understand what motivates each stakeholder or group of stakeholders, and what actions might win their support (if you don’t have it already).
• Come up with a comprehensive communications plan that’s tailored to suit the needs of your various audiences.